Desert Description - Land Biome Overview

Biomes are the worlds major habitats. These habitats are identified by the vegetation and animals that populate them. The location of each biome is determined by the regional climate. Deserts are dry areas that experience extremely small amounts of rainfall. Many people assume falsely that all deserts are hot. This is not the case as deserts can be either hot or cold. The determining factor for considering a biome to be a desert is the lack of precipitation, which can be in various forms (rain, snow, etc.). A desert is classified according to its location, temperature, and amount of precipitation. The extreme dry conditions of the desert biome makes it difficult for plant and animal life to thrive. Organisms that make their home in the desert have specific adaptations to deal with the harsh environmental conditions. Climate Deserts are determined by low amounts of precipitation, not temperature. They typically receive less than 12 inches or 30 cm of rain per year. The driest deserts often receive less than a half an inch or 2 cm of rain per year. Temperatures in the desert are extreme. Because of the lack of moisture in the air, heat quickly dissipates as the sun sets. In hot deserts, the temperatures can range from above 100 °F (37 °C) in the day to below 32 °F (0 °C) at night. Cold deserts generally receive more rainfall than hot deserts. In cold deserts, temperatures in winter range between 32 °F - 39 °F (0 °C - 4 °C) with occasional snowfall. Location Deserts are estimated to cover about one-third of the Earths land surface. Some locations of deserts include: HotNorth AmericaWest Coast of South AmericaCentral AustraliaNorth AfricaMiddle EastColdAntarcticaCentral AsiaGreenland The largest desert in the world is the continent of Antarctica. It spans 5.5 million square miles and also happens to be the driest and coldest continent on the planet. The largest hot desert in the world is the Sahara Desert. It covers 3.5 million square miles of land in North Africa. Some of the highest temperatures ever recorded were measured in the Mojave Desert in California and the Lut Desert in Iran. In 2005, temperatures in the Lut Desert reached a sweltering 159.3 °F (70.7 °C). Vegetation Due to very dry conditions and poor soil quality in the desert, only a limited number of plants can survive. Desert plants have many adaptations for life in the desert. In very hot and dry deserts,   plants such as cacti and other succulents have shallow root systems to absorb large quantities of water in a short time. They also have leaf adaptations, such as a waxy covering or thin needle-like leaves to help reduce water loss. Plants in coastal desert regions have broad thick leaves or large root systems to absorb and retain large amounts of water. Many desert plants adapt to the dry conditions by going dormant during very dry periods and growing only when seasonal rain returns. Examples of desert plants include: cacti, yuccas, buckwheat bushes, black bushes, prickly pears and false mesquites. Wildlife Deserts are home to many burrowing animals. These animals include badgers, jack rabbits, toads, lizards, snakes, and kangaroo rats. Other animals include coyotes, foxes, owls, eagles, skunks, spiders and various kinds of insects. Many desert animals are nocturnal. They burrow underground to escape the extremely high temperatures in the day and come out at night to feed. This allows them to conserve water and energy. Other adaptations to desert life include light color fur that can reflect sunlight. Special appendages, such as long ears, help to dissipate heat. Some insects and amphibians adapt to their conditions by burrowing underground and remaining dormant until water is more plentiful. More Land Biomes Deserts are one of many biomes. Other land biomes of the world include: Chaparrals: Characterized by dense shrubs and grasses, this biome experiences dry summers and damp winters.Savannas: This large grassland biome is home to some of the fastest animals on the planet.Taigas: Also called coniferous forests, this biome is populated by dense evergreen trees.Temperate Forests: These forests experience distinctive seasons and are populated by deciduous trees (lose leaves in winter).Temperate Grasslands: These open grasslands are located in colder climate regions than savannas. They are found on every continent except for Antarctica.Tropical Rain Forests: This biome receives abundant rainfall and is characterized by tall, dense vegetation. Located near the equator, this biome experiences hot temperatures year round.Tundra: As the coldest biome in the world, tundras are characterized by extremely cold temperatures, permafrost, tree-less landscapes, and slight precipitation. Sources: Burton, James. â€Å"The Largest Deserts in the World.† WorldAtlas, 20 Jan. 2016, www.worldatlas.com/articles/10-largest-deserts-in-the-world.html.Staff, Live Science. â€Å"Wheres the Hottest Place on Earth?† LiveScience, Purch, 16 Apr. 2012, www.livescience.com/19700-hottest-place-earth.html.

UNV 504 Topic 4 Final - 1630 Words

College of Business Pillars Edgar Martinez Grand Canyon University Introduction to Graduate Studies in the College of Business Tanya Roundtree May 13, 2015 As one of the top-rated, premier business schools available in the United States, within the southwest region, you will find the ACBSP accredited Grand Canyon University (GCU) nestled within the Arizonan desert in Phoenix. Their mission statement incorporates; Challenge which inspires its thousands of students to be better servant leaders with cutting-edge business skills and values that are vital to driving organizational success and to have a positive impact within society. The University offers quality education through its academic excellence and relevant†¦show more content†¦Alongside the entrepreneur spirit, Innovation is the process of taking new ideas and implementing them into the market. Key word being â€Å"new†, an innovation can be sometimes viewed as the application to better solutions that meet new demand-requirements, inarticulated needs or existing market needs. Innovative ideas range from: goods, services, products, processes, services, technolo gies or ideas that create value for which customers will pay for. For an idea to be an innovation, it must be replicable at an economical cost and must satisfy a specific need. This means is that one must be ready and willing put their new idea to the test. On the other hand, there is recognition that â€Å"innovation is also critical to cultural, environmental, social, and artistic progress as well† (Bullinger, 2006). With this stated, high-tech innovation is ultimately the reason why we can be thankful for the many new conveniences of the 21st century. Although we might see the forefront of innovation being very prominent in today’s world, innovation is truly nothing new. From the start of modern man times, innovative ideas have paved the way for civilization to advance and develop into what we are today and at the same time, we have barely begin to chip away at the tip of the iceberg of our true human potential. Some scholars believe that innovation is a

Disney’s Hercules and the Heroic Code Free Essays

Disney’s Hercules Disney’s Hercules, while not entirely true to the scripture he was first conceptualized in, is rife with the same heroic traits as his definitive counterpart. Throughout the course of the film, Hercules faces a series of challenges and events which test his strength and ability. Subsequently these events fulfill the majority of his heroic archetype. We will write a custom essay sample on Disney’s Hercules and the Heroic Code or any similar topic only for you Order Now By Hercules’ masculine nature, divine parent, divine helper, trip to the underworld, and fulfillment of kleos (his immortal quest for glory), Hercules would have been considered a hero in Ancient Greek society despite the archetypical traits left unfulfilled in the film. Hercules’ masculinity becomes majorly evident as a physical aspect after undergoing training with Philoctetes (Phil). His muscular personage is representative of man in a direct way. While he does not dominate his relationship with his love interest, Megara (Meg), by physical means he overshadows her and asserts masculinity. Hercules is also masculine in his bravery by the way he confronts challenges head on. In one instance, Hercules literally bashes the centaur, Nessus, with his head. In Hercules’ muscular build and his courageous albeit headstrong tendency, he is personified as a masculine hero. Hercules actually has two divine parents, Zeus and Hera, in Disney’s rendition as opposed to only one in Greek myth. In this way the heroic notion of having a divine parent is fulfilled perhaps to a greater extent. Hercules’ father, Zeus, also plays a role as his divine helper, another trait of the hero archetype. Zeus fulfills this by revealing Hercules’ past to him and his relation to the gods, setting him off on his journey to heroism. In addition to Zeus, Hercules’ winged horse, also serves as a divine helper throughout the film. Pegasus assists Hercules in nearly all of his battles and takes his abilities to new heights. Hercules makes his trip to the underworld in an attempt to rescue Megara from death itself. Hercules’ immortal quest for glory or kleos is fulfilled in many instances of the film. On multiple occasions Hercules slays fantastic creatures such as the Hydra and achieves his glory through the admiration of others. While enchanting the people of Thebes and creating some lasting effect in their continual praise, Hercules’ immortal quest for glory is cemented at the conclusion of the film when Zeus creates a constellation of him in the night sky. How to cite Disney’s Hercules and the Heroic Code, Papers

Shortening of Words and Their Features free essay sample

Shortening of spoken words 2. 2. Blendening of words 3. 2. Back formation 4. 2. Back formation as a source for shortening of words III. Conclusion 1. 3. Total review of the subject discussed 2. 3. The ways of applying of the work IV. Bibliography Introduction 1. 1 Common characteristics of the course paper The theme of my course paper sounds as following: â€Å"Type of shortening and their function in Modern English† This course paper can be characterized by the following: The actuality of this work caused by several important points. We seem to say that the shortening of the words is one of the main trends in development of Modern English, especially in its colloquial layer, which, in its turn at high degree is supported by development of modern informational technologies and simplification of alive speech. So the significance of our work can be proved by the following reasons: a) Shortening of words is one of the developing branches of lexicology nowadays. b) Shortening reflects the general trend of simplification of a language. c) Shortening is closely connected with the development of modern informational technologies. ) Being a developing branch of linguistics it requires a special attention of teachers to be adequate to their specialization in English. Having based upon the actuality of the theme we are able to formulate the general goals of our course paper. a) To study, analyze, and sum up all the possible changes happened in the studied branch of linguistics for the past fifty years. b) To teach the problem of shortening to young English learners. c) To demonstrate the significance of the problem for those who want to brush up their English. d) To mention all the major of linguists’ opinions concerning the subject studied. If we say about the new information used within our work we may note that the work studies the problem from the modern positions and analyzes the modern trends appeared in this subject for the last ten years. In particular, the shorten language of computer chats was taken into consideration. The practical significance of the work can be concluded in the following items: a) The work could serve as a good source of learning English by young teachers at schools and colleges. b) The lexicologists could find a lot of interesting information for themselves. ) those who would like to communicate with the English-speaking people through the Internet will find a shortened language of chats in our course paper Having said about the linguists studied the material before we can mention that our course paper was based upon the investigations made by a number of well known English, Russian and Uzbek lexicologists as A. I. Smirnitsky, B. A. Ilyish, N. Buranov, V. V. Vinogradov, O. Jespersen and som e others. If we say about the methods of scientific approaches used in our work we can mention that the method of typological analysis was used. The novelty of the work is concluded in including the language of charts to one of the chapter of the course paper. The general structure of our course paper looks as follows: The work is composed onto three major parts: introduction, main part and conclusion. Each part has its subdivision onto the specific thematically items. There are two points in the introductory part: the first item tells about the general content of the work while the other gives us the general explanation of the lexicological phenomenon of shortening in a language. The main part bears the eight points in itself. The first point explains the shortening of spoken words in particular. The second item analyzes the phenomenon of graphical abbreviations and acronyms. In the third point we study abbreviations as the major way of shortening. In the fourth paragraph of the course paper we deal with the secondary ways of shortening: sound interchange and sound imitation. The fifth paragraph takes into consideration the question of Blendening of words. The sixth item shows us the back formation examples. The last paragraph of the main part analyzes the homonymy influence onto the appearing of shortening. The conclusion of the course paper sums up the ideas discussed in the main part (the first item) and shows the ways of implying of the course paper (in the second item). 2. 1 General definition of homonyms Word-building processes involve not only qualitative but also quantitative changes. Thus, derivation and compounding represent addition, as affixes and free stems, respectively, are added to the underlying form. Shortening, on the other hand, may be represented as significant subtraction, in which part of the original word is taken away. The spoken and the written forms of the English language have each their own patterns f shortening, but as there is a constant exchange between both spheres, it is sometimes difficult to tell where a given shortening really originated. SHORTENING OF WORDS AND MINOR WAYS OF WORD-FORMING The shortening of words consists in sub-of words Graphical a part for a whole. The process Ð ¾f shortening is not confined only to words; many word-groups also beco me shortened in the process of communication. Therefore, the term shortening of words is to be regarded as conventional, as it involves the shortening of both words and word-groups. Distinction should be made between shortening of words in written speech and in the sphere of oral intercourse. Shortening of words in written speech results in graphical abbreviations which are, in fact, signs representing words and word-groups of high frequency of occurrence in various spheres of human activity; note, for instance, RD for Road and St for Street in addresses on envelopes and in letters; to for tube, are for aerial in Radio Engineering literature, etc. English graphical abbreviations include rather numerous shortened variants of Latin and French words and word-groups, e. g. a. m. (L. nte meridian)—in the morning, before noon; p. m. (L. post meridian)—’in the afternoon, afternoon; i. e. (L. widest)—that is; R. S. V. P. (Fr. Repondez sil vous plait) — reply please, etc. The characteristic feature of graphical abbreviations is that they are restricted in use to written speech, occurring only in various kinds of texts, articles, books, advertisements, letters, etc. In reading many of them are substituted by the words and phrases that they represent, e. g. , Dr. -doctor, Mr. -mister, Oct. -October, etc. , the abbreviations of Latin and French words and phrases being usually read as their English equivalents. It is only natural that in the course of language development some graphical abbreviations should gradually penetrate into the sphere of oral intercourse and, as a result, turn into lexical abbreviations used both in oral and written speech. That is the case, for instance, with M. P. Member of Parliament, S. O. S. Save our Souls, etc. Lexical Shortened variants of words and shortening, phrases are used as independent lexical units with a certain phonetic shape and a semantic structure of their own. Some of them occur both in oral and written speech, others only in oral colloquial speech, cf. us, mike, phone, on the one hand, and trig, math’s, sis, on the other. In most cases a shortened word exists in the vocabulary together with the longer word from which it is derived and usually has the same lexical meaning1 differing only in emotive charge and stylistic reference. The question naturally arises whether the shortened forms and the original forms should be considered separate words. Some linguists hold the view that as the two units (e. g. exam and examination) do not differ in meaning but only in stylistic application, it would be wrong to apply the term word to the shortened unit. In fact, the shortened unit is a word-variant (e. g. exam is a word-variant of the word examination). Other linguists contend that even when the original word and its shortened form are generally used with a difference in the implied tone of feeling they are both to be recognized as two distinct words. If this treatment of the process of word-shortening is accepted, the essential difference between the shortening of words and the usual process of word-formation (such as affixation, compounding, etc. ) should be pointed out. It will be recalled that words built by affixation, for instance, are of a more complex character both structurally and semantically, cf. teach—teacher, develop—s- development, usual-unusual, etc. It is not the case with word-shortening; shortened words are structurally simple words and, as was mentioned above, in most cases have the same lexical meaning as the longer words from which they are derived. Another peculiarity of word-shortening if treated as a derivational process is that there are no structural patterns after which new shortened words could be coined. At any rate, linguistic research has failed to establish any so far. Among shortenings of the lexical type distinction should be made between lexical abbreviations and clippings- Lexical abbreviations are formed by a simultaneous operation of shortening and compounding universally applied to them in Soviet linguistic literature. They are made up of the initial sounds or syllables of the components of a word-group or a compound word usually of a terminological character. There are two ways to read and pronounce such abbreviations: As a succession of the alphabetical readings of the constituent letters, e. . Ð’. Ð’. Ð ¡,[bi:bi:si:] = British Broadcasting Corporation; -T. V. [ti:vi:] television; etc. as a succession of sounds denoted by the constituent letters, i. e. as if the abbreviations were ordinary words, e. g. UNO [ju:noy] = United Nations Organization; NATO [neitou] = North Atlantic Treaty Organization; laser [‘leiza] light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation; etc. As a rule, lexical abbreviations do not include functio nal words (prepositions, articles, etc. ). although there are some exceptions, e. g. R. and D. [ a:rsndi:] research and development program. In some cases only the first component of a two-member word-group or the first two components of a three-member group are shortened, the last one undergoing no change at all, e. g. V-day rvi: dei]Victory Day; H-bomb reitj bnm] hydrogen Domb; V. J. -Day [vidgeidei] = Victory over Japan Day, etc. As a general rule, lexical abbreviations first make their appearance in written speech, mostly in newspaper style and in the style of scientific prose, and gradually find their way into the sphere of oral intercourse. [1] Clipping consists in the cutting off of one or several syllables of a word. In many cases the stressed syllable is preserved, e. g. sis from sister, Jap from Japanese, doc from doctor, etc. Diminutives of proper names are often formed in this way, e. g. AH from Alfred, Ed from Edward, Sam from Samuel, etc. Sometimes, however, it is the unstressed syllable that remains e. g. phone from telephone, plane from airplane, dome from aerodrome, etc. Traditionally clippings are classified into several types depending on which part of the word is clipped: Words that have been shortened at the end—the so called apocope [opokop], Ð µ. g. ad from advertisement, lab from laboratory, etc. Words that have been shortened at the beginning—the so-called aphaeresis [afiansisj — Ð µ. g. car from motor-car, phone from telephone, etc. Words in which some syllables or sounds have been omitted from the middle—the so-called syncope [sinkapi] — Ð µ. g. math’s from mathematics, pants from pantaloons specs from spectacles, etc. Words that have been clipped both at the beginning and at the end, e. g. flu from influenza, tic from detective, frig from refrigerator, etc. It is typical of word-clipping in Modern English that in most cases it is the nouns that are shortened. There are very few clipped adjectives all of them belonging to jargonize, e. g. add from ardent, dilly from delightful and some others. As for clipped verbs it is usually a case of conversion from clipped nouns, e. g. to taxi from taxi, to phone from phone, to perm from perm—a permanent wave, etc. 1) When performing in the sentence some peculiarities the syntactical functions of ordinary of Clipped words and lexical Abbreviations, abbreviations take on grammatical inflections, e. g. exams, M. P. s (will attack huge arms bill), (Tory) M. P. ’s (concern at), etc. These two categories of shortened words may be used with the definite and the indefinite article, e. g. the Ð’. Ð’. Ð ¡, a bike, the radar, etc. [2] They may be combined with derivational affixes and also be used in compounding, e. g. Y. Ð ¡ L. -er— member of the Y. C. L. ; M. P. -ess—woman-member of Parliament; hanky from handkerchief, nighttime from nightdress (with the diminutive suffix -ie); radar man— etc. Clipped words are characteristic of colloquial speech. The number of clipped words used in everyday speech is rather considerable and newly clipped words keep entering the vocabulary. In the course of time many clipped words find their way into the literary language losing their stylistic coloring, though not infrequently they still preserve the stamp of colloquial words and, as a result, are restricted in use. The term blending is used to de- § 39. Blending signage the method of merging parts of words (not morphemes) into one new word; the result is a blend, also known as a portmanteau word. The noun smog is an example in point. It is composed of the parts of the nouns smoke and fog (smoke-Hog). Thus blending is in fact compounding by means of clipped words. The result of blending is an unanalyzed, simple word, for the parts of words blended by the word-coiner (for instance, sin and go in smog) are not morphemes at all in terms of the English language. Therefore a blend is perceived as a simple word unless speakers have received the extra-linguistic information about its composition. Many blends are short-lived. A fair proportion, however, have become established in the vocabulary, e. g. clash—clap H-crash or dash; flush = flash blush; brunch—breakfast-Ð ¬ lunch; 5language=slang-language; amaze smoke haze, etc. In most cases blends belong to the colloquial layer of words sometimes bordering on slang, e. g. amaze, brunch, language, politician pollute politician, etc. There are numerous blends, however, in the terminological sector of the vocabulary, e. g. recon=radar beacon; transceiver = transmitter-receive; transistor=transfer resistor, etc. In considering the diachronic and the formation synchronic approach to language study (see Introduction,  § 2) reference was made, in particular, to the verb to beg derived from the noun beggar borrowed from Old French. The noun beggar was later presumed to have been derived from a shorter word on the analogy of the derivative correlation of the speak—speaker type. This process of word-formation is called backformation (or back-derivation) and has diachronic relevance only. It does not affect the derivative correlation for present-day speakers who do not feel any difference between the relationship speak— speaker, on the one hand, and beg—beggar, on the other. Examples of backformation are numerous: to burgle from burglar; to edit from editor; to enthuse from enthusiasm; to sculpt from sculptor, to liaise from liaison, etc. At the present time backformation combined with conversion seems to be active in the formation of verbs from compound nouns mostly of a terminological character, e. g. to blood-transfuse from blood-trans fusion =; to rush-develop from rush-development; to finger-print from finger-printing; to baby-sit from baby-sitter etc. Sound-interchange is the gradation of e. g. Sound- and stress- sounded occupying one and the same interchange. Place in the sound-form of one and the same morpheme in various cases of its occurrence. Both sound and stress-interchange may be regarded as ways of forming words only diachronically because in Modern English not a single word can be coined by changing the root-vowel of a word or by shifting the place of the stress. Sound-interchange as well as stress-interchange is absolutely non-productive and in fact has turned into a means of distinguishing between different words, primarily between words of different parts of speech and as such is rather wide-spread in Modern English, e. g. to sing—song, to live—life, to breathe—breath, etc. It also distinguishes between different word-forms, e. g. an—men, wife—wives, to know—knew, to leave—left, etc. Sound-interchange naturally falls into two groups: vowel-interchange and consonant-interchange. By means of vowel-interchange we distinguish different parts of speech, e. g. full—to fill, food—to feed, blood-to bleed, etc. In some cases vowel-interchange is combined with a ffixation, e. g. long—length, strong—strength, broad— breadth; nature—natural, nation—national, etc. Intransitive verbs and corresponding transitive ones with a causative meaning also display vowel-interchange, e. g. to rise—to raise, to sit—to set, to He—to lay, to fall—to fell. The type of consonant-interchange typical of Modern English is the interchange of a voiceless fricative consonant in a noun and the corresponding voiced consonant in the corresponding verb, e. g. : use—to use, mouth—to mouth, house-to house, advice—to advise, etc. There are some particular cases of consonant-interchange: [k]—[tj]: to speak—speech; to break—breach; [s]—[dj:] defense—to defend; offence—to offend; [sj—ft]: evidence-evident; importance—important; etc. Consonant-interchange may be combined with vowel-interchange, e. g. bath—to bathe; breath—to breathe; life—to live, etc. Many English verbs of Latin-French origin are distinguished from the corresponding nouns by the position of stress. Here are some well-known examples of such pairs of words: export  «Ã¢â‚¬â€to export o; import n—to import v; conduct n—to conduct v; present n—to present v; contrast n— to contrast u; increase n—-to increase v, etc. Stress-interchange is not restricted to pairs of words consisting of a noun and a verb. It may also occur between other parts of speech, for instance, between adjective and verb, cf. frequent adj—to frequent v, absent ad\— to absent v, etc. Relationship Sound-interchange in English is often Between sound (stress)- combined with a difference only in the interchange paradigm. Hence the question arises and conversion. Of the relativistic between sound-interchange and conversion. To investigate the problem the following three types of relations should be distinguished: 1)Breath—to breathe As far as cases of this type are concerned, sound-interchange distinguishes only between words; it does not differentiate word-forms of one and the same word. Consequently it has no relation to the paradigms of the words. Hence, cases of this type cannot be regarded as conversion. )Song—to sing In the given example the vowel in song interchanges with three different vowels, the latter interchanging with one another in the forms of the verb to sing:[3] [pic] Like the previous type, the words song—to sing is not related by conversion: song differs from to sing (sang, sung) not only in the paradigm, its root-vowel not occ urring in the word-forms of the verb and vice versa. 3) House—to house In such cases the type of sound-interchange used to distinguish the two words (verb and noun) is the same as that which distinguishes the word-forms of the noun, cf. house [haus]—houses [hauziz] and to house [hauz]. Consequently, the only difference between the two words lies in their paradigms, in other words, word-pairs like house—to house are cases of conversion. It is fairly obvious that in such cases as present—to present, accent—-to accent, etc. which differ in the position of stress the latter does not distinguish the word-forms within the paradigm of the two words. Thus, as far as cases of this type are concerned, the difference in stress is similar to the function of sound-interchange in cases like breath—to breathe. Consequently, cases of this type do not belong to conversion. 1. Shortening of words and word summary groups is typical of present-day English a one occurring in various spheres of oral and written intercourse. Graphical abbreviations are restricted in use to written speech. Lexical abbreviations and especially clippings are peculiar to the sphere of oral communication The result of blending which is a compounding of clipped words is always a simple word. In most cases blends belong to the colloquial layer of words. There are, however, numerous blends in the terminological section of the vocabulary. The process of back formation is of diachronic relevance only. The function of sound-interchange and stress-inter change in Modern English is to distinguish between different words and word-forms. Sound-interchange is often accompanied by affixation. The Main Part 1. 2 SHORTENING OF SPOKEN WORDS As a type of word-building shortening of spoken words, also called clipping or curtailment, is recorded in the English language as far back a the 15th century. 1 It has grown more and more productive ever since. This growth becomes especially marked in many European languages in the 20th century, and it is a matter of common knowledge that this development is particularly intense in English. Newly shortened words appear continuously; this is testified by numerous neologisms, such as dub v, a cinema term meaning to make another recording of sound-track in a film in a different language (from double); frig or fridge n from refrigerator; mike n from microphone; tellie, telly or T. V. n from television set; vacun from vacuum cleaner, etc. Many authors are inclined to overemphasize the role of the strain of modern life as the mainspring of this development. This is, obviously, only one of the reasons, and the purely linguistic factors should not be overlooked. Among the major forces are the demands of rhythm, which are more readily satisfied when the words are monosyllabic. When dealing with words of long duration, one will also note that a high percentage of English shortenings are involved into the process of loan word assimilation. Monosyllabic goes farther in English than in any other European language, and that is why shortened words sound more like native ones than their long prototypes. Curtailment may therefore be regarded as caused, partly at least, by analogical extension, i. . modification of form on the basis of analogy with existing and widely used patterns. Thus, the three homonyms resulting from abbreviation of three different words, van a large covered vehicle, a railway carriage, the short for caravan (by aphesis1); van the front of an army, the short of vanguard which in its turn is a clipping of the French word avant-garde; and van — a lawn tennis term, the short for advantage, all sound quite like English words. Cf. ban n and v, can, fan, man, ran (Past Tense of run), tan, etc. Shortening of spoken words or curtailment consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts (whether or not this part has previously been a morpheme), as a result of which the new form acquires some linguistic value of its own. The part retained does not change phonetically, hence the necessity of spelling changes in some of the examples above (dub:: double, mike :: microphone, etc. ). The change is not only quantitative: a curtailed word 2 is not merely a word that has lost its initial, middle or final part. Nor is it possible to treat shortening as just using a part for the whole as Hackett suggests, because a shortened word is always in some way different from its prototype in meaning and usage. Moreover, every kind of shortening differs’ from derivation, composition and conversion in being not a new arrangement of existing morphemes, but often a source of new ones. Shortening may be regarded as a type of root creation because the resulting new morphemes are capable of being used as free forms and combine with bound forms. They can take functional suffixes: Refs Warning Works Magic (the title of a newspaper article about a football match where the referee called both teams together and lectured them on rough play). Cf. Sing. — bike, bod, 1 PI. — bikes, bodes, Inf. — to vac, 2 Part. I — vacking, Past Tense and Part. II — vacked. They also serve as basis for further word-formation: fancy n (from fantasy), fancy v, fancier n, fanciful adj, fancifully adv, fancifulness n, fancy-ball n, fancy-dress n, fancy-work n, etc. It is interesting in this connection to compare the morphemes â€Å"tele† in television and telecast. They are homonymous but not identical. Tele- in television is derived from â€Å"Grtele far†, it is a combining form used to coin many special terms denoting instruments and processes which produce or record results at a distance, such as telecommunication, telemechanics, telepathy, telephone, telescope and television itself. Tele- in telecast does not mean far, it is a new development — the shortened variant of television rendering a special new notion. This becomes obvious from the following simple transformations: television vision at a distance, tele(broad)cast HO a broadcast at a distance,3 tele (broad) cast a television broadcast. In this new capacity tele- enters many combinations: telefilm, tele-prompter (an electronic device that slowly unrolls the speakers text, in large print out of sight of the audience), televiewer one who uses a television set, telestar (Anglo-American satellite used as television relay station). The correlation of a curtailed word with its prototype is of great interest. Two possible developments should be noted: 1. The curtailed form may be regarded as a variant or a synonym differing from the full form quantitatively, stylistically and sometimes emotionally, the prototype being stylistically and emotionally neutral, e. g. doc :: doctor; exam :: examination. Also in proper names: Becky:: Rebecca, Frisco :: San Francisco, Japs :: the Japanese. The missing part can at all times be supplied by the listener, so that the connection between the prototype and the short form is not lost. The relationship between the prototype and the curtailment belongs in this case to the present-day vocabulary system and forms a relevant feature for synchronistic analysis. Much yet remains to be done in studying the complex relations between the prototype and the clipping, as it is not clear when one should consider them two separate synonymous words and when they are variants of the same word. 2. In the opposite extreme case the connection can be established only etytnologically. The denotative or lexico-grammatical meaning, or both, may have changed so much that the clipping becomes a separate word. Consequently a pair of etymological doublets1 comes into being. Cf. chap:: chapmen a peddlers, fan an enthusiastic devotee :: fanatic, fancy :: fantasy, miss -. . mistress. A speaker who calls himself a football fan would probably be offended at being called a fanatic. A fanatic is understood to have unreasonable and exaggerated beliefs and opinions that make him socially dangerous, whereas a fan is a harmless devotee of a specified amusement. The relationship between curtailed forms and prototypes in this second group is irrelevant to the present-day voc abulary system, and is a matter of historic, i. e. diachronistic study. In both types the clipped forms (doc, exam, chap, fan, etc. ) exist in the language alongside their respective prototypes. The difference, however, is that whereas words belonging to the first group can be replaced by their prototypes and show in this way a certain degree of interchangeability, the doublets are never equivalent lexically as there are no contexts where the prototype can replace the shortened word without a change of meaning. The possibility of substitution in case of variants may be shown by the following example: if a newspaper article about a certain musician2 is entitled The Boss of the Tenor Sax, there is nothing very unusual in substituting saxophone for sax (The Boss of the Tenor Saxophone). The prototype is stylistically neutral and therefore it can stand for the curtailed word. A similar example is furnished by the following heading of a brief newspaper note about the prescription of eyeglasses for racing horses in Chicago. It runs as follows: Racehorses Are Fitted with Specs. The substitution of spectacles for specs would make the heading a little less lively but not unacceptable. This substitution, as a rule, can go only one way. It would be, for instance, impossible to use mug for magazine in the following passage of literary criticism: The public he [Ch. Dickens] wrote for was largely a new public brought to consciousness by the industrial revolution, a public for which magazine proprietors had not catered before 1832 (W. ALLEN) The specific stylistic character of the clipped form greatly limits the possibilities of usage. The semantic status of the group of variants (or synonyms) and that of the group of doublets is also different. Curtailed words of the first group (variants) render one of the possible meanings of the prototype creating by this very novelty a greater expressiveness, a colloquial or slangy shade and often emotional coloring as well. The following extract will illustrate this coloring: Still, I suppose you want to find your room. I wonder where theyve put you. Half a mo — /// come down and look on the board. You go and make the co//, Con she called back as she came downstairs, 1 shant be a jiff. Everything with her was an abbreviation. Striking a match by the notice board, she searched for the number of my room. Presuming the Ass Mats remembered The who? Assistant Matron, old Fanny Harriman (M. DICKENS) It is typical of the curtailed words to render only one of the secondary meanings of a polysemantic word. For instance the verb double may mean to multiply by two, to increase twofold, to amount to twice as much; when used by musicians it means to add the same note in a higher or a lower octave. In a military context the meaning is to move in double time or run. As a nautical term it is synonymous to the expression to get round headland, etc. Dub, on the contrary, renders only one of the specific meanings (see p. 110). The curtailed words belonging to this type are mostly mono-semantic as, for example, lab, exam, and fan. Also they are often homonymous: compare van and vac as treated above, also gym for gymnastics and gym for gymnasium, or vet for veteran and veterinary. Most of these by conversion produce verbs: to phone, to vac, to vet, etc. , in which the semantic relationship with the prototype remains quite clear. Between the two groups of well-defined extreme cases, namely variants or synonyms and doublets, there exist numerous intermediate cases, where the classification is difficult. The appearance of a more complex semantic structure in a word is a step towards its acquiring greater independence and thus becoming not a variant but a doublet of the prototype. This intermediate state is illustrated by the word polio which means not only the illness but also a person suffering from poliomyelitis, although the phrases a polio case or a polio victim are more often used. The second extreme group, the etymological doublets, may develop semantic structures of their own. Very complex semantic cases like fancy with its many meanings and high valiancy are nevertheless rare. It has been specified in the definition of the process that the clipped part is not always a complete morpheme, so that the division is only occasionally correlated with the division into immediate constituents. For instance, in phone for telephone and photo for photograph the remaining parts are complete morphemes occurring in other words. On the other hand in ec or eco (from economics) the morphological structure of the prototype is disregarded. All linguists agree that most often it is either the first or the stressed part of the word that remains to represent the whole. An interesting and convincing explanation for this is offered by M. M. Segal, who quotes the results of several experimental investigations dealing with informal! Vine parts of words. These experiments carried out by psychologists have proved very definitely that the initial components of words are imprinted in the mind and memory more readily than the final parts. The signaling value of the first stressed syllable, especially when it is at the same time the root syllable, is naturally much higher than that of the unstressed final syllables with their reduced vowel sounds. As a rule, but not necessarily, clipping follows the syllabic principle of word division, e. g. pep (si. ) vigour, spirit from pepper, or plane from aero plane. In other instances it may be quite an arbitrary part of the prototype, e. g. prep (school. ) Homework is from preparation. Unlike conversion, shortening produces new words in the same part of speech. The bulk of curtailed words is constituted by nouns, Verbs are hardly ever shortened in present-day English, Rev from revolve and tab from tabulate may be considered exceptions. Such clipped verbs as do occur are in fact converted nouns. Consequently the verbs to perm, to phone, to taxi, to vac, to vet and many others are not curtailed words diachronically hut may be regarded as such by right of structure, from the synchronic point of view. As to the verbs to pent, to mend, to tend and a few others, they were actually coined as curtailed words but not at the present stage of language development. Shortened adjectives are very few and mostly reveal a combined effect of shortening and suffixation, e. g. comfy . comfortable, dilly :: delightful, imposes :: impossible, muzzy :: miserable, which occur in schoolgirl slang. As an example of a shortened interjection Shun! :: attention, the word of command may be mentioned, Various classifications of shortened words have been or may he offered. The generally accepted one is that based on the position of the clipped part. According to whether it is the final, initial or middle part of the word that is cut off we disti nguish final clipping (or apocopate),2 initial clipping (or aphesis) 3 and medial clipping (or syncope) [4] SHORTENED WORDS . Final clipping in which the beginning of the prototype is retained, is practically the rule, and forms the bulk of the class: e. g. ad, advert :: advertisement, coke :: coca-cola, ed -. -. editor, -fab :; fabulous, gym :: gymnastics or gymnasium, lab :; laboratory, mac :: mackintosh, vegs :: vegetables and many others. 2. Initial-clipped words retaining the final part of the prototype . are less numerous but much more firmly established as separate lexical units with a meaning very different from that of the prototype and stylistically neutral doublets, e. g. ute adj, n (Am) :: acute, fend v :: defend, mend v :: amend, story n :: history, sport n :: disport, tend v :: attend. Cases like cello:: violoncello and phone :: telephone where the curtailed words are stylistically synonyms or even variants of their respective prototypes are very rare. Neologisms are f ew: e. g. chute:: parachute. It is in this group that the process of assimilation of loan words takes place. Final and initial clipping may be combined and result in curtailed words with the middle part of the prototype retained. These are few and definitely colloquial: e. . flu :: influenza, frig ox fridge :: refrigerator, tec :: detective. It is worthy of note that what is retained is the stressed syllable of the prototype. 3. Curtailed words with the middle part of the word left out are equally few. They may be further subdivided into two groups: (a) words with a final-clipped stem retaining the functional morpheme: math:: mathematics, specs :: spectacles; (b) contractions due to a gradual process of elision under the influence of rhythm and context. Thus fancy:: fantasy, maam :: madam may be regarded as accelerated forms. It is also possible to approach shortened words on the basis of the structure characterizing the prototype. Then the two mutually exclusive groups are cases correlated with words and those correlated with phrases. The length of the word giving rise to a shortening might result from its being a derivative, a compound or a borrowing. The observation of language material, however, can furnish hardly any examples of the second type (compounds), all the word prototypes being derivatives, either native or borrowed, as is shown by all the examples quoted in the above paragraphs. The few exceptions are exemplified by tarmac, a technical term for tar-macadam, a road surface of crushed stone and tar originally named after the inventor (J. L. Mc Adam, d. 1836); also cabbie for cabman. But then -man in such cases is most often a semi-affix, not a free form, and, besides, the process of shortening is here combined with derivation as in mightier for nightdress. The group we have opposed to the curtailed forms of words is based on clipped phrases, chiefly set expressions. These differ severable from word clippings as they result from a combined effect of curtailment, ellipsis and substantiation. E11ipsis is defined as the omission of a word or words considered essential for grammatical completeness but not for the conveyance of the intended lexical meaning, as in the following example: Police summonses are being served in an effort to stop the big sit down planned for September 17 (Daily Worker), where sit-down stands for sit down demonstration, S. Ullmann following Broal emphasizes the social causes for these. Professional and other communities with a specialized sphere of common interests are the ideal setting for ellipsis. Open on for open fire on, and put to sea for put ship to sea are of wartime and navy origin, and bill for bill of exchange comes from business circles; in a newspaper office daily paper and weekly paper were quite naturally shortened to daily and weekly. It is clear from the above examples that unlike other types of shortening, ellipsis always results in a change of lexico-gravimetrical meaning, and therefore the new word belongs to a different part of speech. Various other processes are often interwoven with ellipsis. For instance: finals for final examinations are a case of ellipsis combined with substantiation of the first element, whereas prelims for preliminary examinations results from ellipsis, substantivation and clipping. Cf. also modes (from Modern jazz). Other examples of the same complex type are perm :: permanent wave, pop :: popular music,2 prom :: promenade concert, i. e. a concert at which at least part of the audience is not seated and can walk about, pub :: public house —an inn or tavern, taxi :: taxi-cab, itself formed from taximeter-cab. Inside this group a subgroup with prefixed derivatives as first elements of prototype phrases can do distinguished, e. g. co-ed a girl student at a co-educational institution, co-op co-operative store or society, non-com a noncommissioned officer, prefab a prefabricated house or structure; to prefabricate means to manufacture component parts of buildings prior to their assembly on a site. It has already been mentioned that curtailed words from compounds are few; cases of curtailment combined with composition set off against phrasal prototypes are slightly more numerous, e. . ad-lib v to speak without notes or preparation from the Latin phrase add labium meaning at pleasure; sub chaser n from submarine chaser. A curious derivational compound with a clipping for one of its stems is the word teen-ager a person between 13 and 19, i. e. a person in his or her teens. The-jocular and ironical name Lib-Labs (Liberal and Labor Party members) illustrates clipping, composition and ellipsis and imitation of reduplication all in one word. Among these formations there is a specific group that has attracted special attention of several authors and was even given several different names: blends, bleu dings, fusions airport an tea words. The last term is due to Lewis Carroll, the author of Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass. One of the most linguistically conscious writers, he made a special technique of using blends coined by himself, such as chortle v lt; chuckle + snort, missy adj lt; miserable -j- flimsy, galumph v lt; gallop -j- triumph, slither adj lt; slimy -\- lithe. Humpty Dumpy explaining these words to Alice says: You see its like a portmanteau — there are two meanings packed up into one word. The process of formation is also called telescoping because the words seem to slide into one another like sections of a telescope. Compare also snob which may have been originally an abbreviation for sine nobilities, written after a name in the registry of fashionable English schools to indicate tha t the bearer of the name did not belong to nobility. One of the most recent examples is bit, the fundamental unit of information, which is short for binary digit. The analysis into immediate constituents is helpful in so far as it permits the definition of a blend as a word with the first constituent represented by a stem whose final part may be missing, and the second constituent by a stem of which the initial part is missing. The second constituent when used in a series of similar blends may turn into a suffix. A new suffix on is, for instance, well under way in such terms as nylon, rayon, salon, formed from the final element of cotton. Depending upon the prototype phrases with which they can be correlated two types of blends can be distinguished. One may be termed additive, the second restrictive. Both involve the sliding together not only of sound but of meaning as well. Yet the semantic relations who are at work are different. The first, i. e. additive type is transformable into a phrase consisting of the respective complete stems combined by the conjunction and: e. g. smog lt; smoke and fog a mixture of smoke and fog1. The element may be synonymous, belong to the same semantic field or at least be members of the same lexico-grammatical class of words: (smoke) + (fog) gt; smog; cf. lso a new coinage amaze [ smog + haze: A Weath er Bureau official described the condition as a kind of smog-like haze. Call it amaze, he said. 1 Pakistan was made up of elements taken from the names of the five western provinces: the initials of Panjab, Afghanis, Kashmir, and Singh, and the final part of Baluchistan. Other examples are: brunch breakfast and lunch; transceiver transmitter and receiver, Niffles Niagara Falls. The restrictive type is transformable into an attributive phrase, where the first element serves as modifier of the second: cinematographic panorama Cinerama. Other examples are: positron lt; positive electron; telecast lt; television broadcast. An interesting variation of the same type is presented by cases of superposition, formed by pairs of words having similar clusters of sounds, which seem to provoke blending, e. g. a motel lt; motorists hotel: the element -ot- is present in both parts of the prototype. Further examples are: shampoo lt; sham bamboo (imitation bamboo); egomaniac lt; atom maniac; languagelt;slang + language, warphan war orphan. Blends, although not very numerous altogether, seem to be on the rise, especially in terminology and also in trade advertisements. Curtailed words arise in various types of colloquial speech, and have for the most part a pronounced stylistic coloring as long as their connection with the prototype is alive, so that they remain synonyms. When the connection with the prototype is lost, the curtailed word may become stylistically neutral: e. g. brig, cab, cello, and pram. Stylistically colored shortened words may belong to any variety of colloquial style. They are especially numerous in various branches of slang: school slang, service slang, sport slang, newspaper slang, etc. Familiar colloquial style gives such examples as bobby, cabbie, mac, and max from maximum, movies. Nursery words are often clipped: grand, granny, hanky from handkerchief, ma, nigh tie from nightdress, pinkie from pinafore. Stylistic peculiarity often goes hand in hand with emotional coloring as is revealed in the above diminutives. School and college slang, on the other hand, reveal some sort of reckless if not ironical attitude to the things named: caf from cafeteria self-service restaurant, digs from diggings lodgings, ec, eco from economics, home ecs, lab, math’s, prelims, prep, prof, trig, undergrad, vac, varsity. Service slang is very rich in clipped words; some of them penetrate the familiar colloquial style. A few examples are: demob from demobilize, divvy n from civilian, op n from operator, non-com n from non-combatant, corps n from corporal, serge n from sergeant. The only types of clippings that belong to bookish style are the poetical contractions, such as een, eer, neer, oer 2. 2. BLENDING OF WORDS Blends are words formed from a word-group or two synonyms. In blends two ways of word-building are combined: abbreviation and composition. To form a blend we clip the end of the first component (apocope) and the beginning of the second component (aphaeresis). As a result we have a compound- shortened word. One of the first blends in English was the word  «smog » from two synonyms: smoke and fog which means smoke mixed with fog. From the first component the beginning is taken, from the second one the end,  «o » is common for both of them. Blends formed from two synonyms are: languange, to hustle, gasohol etc. Mostly blends are formed from a word-group, such as : acromania (acronym mania), cinemadict (cinema adict), chunnel (channel, canal), dramedy (drama comedy), detectifiction (detective fiction), faction (fact fiction) (fiction based on real facts), informecial (information commercial), Medicare ( medical care), magalog ( magazine atalogue) slimnastics (slimming gymnastics), sociolite (social elite), slanguist ( slang linguist) etc. 3. 2 BACK FORMATION It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme to form a new word. It is opposite to suffixation that is why it is called back formation. At first it appeared in the language as a result of misunderstanding the structure of a borrowed word. Prof. Yartseva explains this mistake by the influence of the whole system of the language on separate words. E. g. t is typical of English to form nouns denoting the agent of the action by adding the suffix -er to a verb stem (speak- speaker). So when the French word  «beggar » was borrowed into English the final syllable  «ar » was pronounced in the same way as the English -er and Englishmen formed the verb  «to beg » by dropping the end of the noun. Other examples of back formation are: to accreditate (from accreditation), to bach (from bachelor), to collocate (from collocation), to enthuse (from enthusiasm), to compute (from computer), to emote (from emotion) to reminisce ( from reminiscence), to televise (from television) etc. As we can notice in cases of back formation the part-of-speech meaning of the primary word is changed, verbs are formed from nouns. 4. 2 BACK FORMATION AS A SOURCE FOR SHORTENING OF WORDS The meaning of a word can change in the course of time. Changes of lexical meanings can be proved by comparing contexts of different times. Transfer of the meaning is called lexico-semantic word-building. In such cases the outer aspect of a word does not change. The causes of semantic changes can be extra-linguistic and linguistic, e. g. the change of the lexical meaning of the noun  «pen » was due to extra-linguistic causes. Primarily  « pen » comes back to the Latin word  «penna » (a feather of a bird). As people wrote with goose pens the name was transferred to steel pens which were later on used for writing. Still later any instrument for writing was called  « a pen ». On the other hand causes can be linguistic, e. g. the conflict of synonyms when a perfect synonym of a native word is borrowed from some other language one of them may specialize in its meaning, e. g. the noun  «tide » in Old English was polysemantic and denoted  «time »,  «season »,  «hour ». When the French words  «time »,  «season », and  «hour » were borrowed into English they ousted the word  «tide » in these meanings. It was specialized and now means  «regular rise and fall of the sea caused by attraction of the moon)). The meaning of a word can also change due to ellipsis, e. g. the word-group  «a train of carriages » had the meaning of  «a row of carriages)), later on  «of carriages)) was dropped and the noun  «train)gt; changed its meaning, it is used now in the function and with the meaning of the whole word-group. Semantic changes have been classified by different scientists. The most complete classification was suggested by a German scientist Herman Paul in his work  «Prinzipien des Sprachgeschichte)). It is based on the logical principle. Me distinguishes two main ways where the semantic change is gradual (specialization and generalization), two momentary conscious semantic changes (metaphor and metonymy) and also secondary ways: gradual (elevation and degradation), momentary (hyperbole and litotes). SPECIALIZATION It is a gradual process when a word passes from a general sphere to some special sphere of communication, e. g. case » has a general meaning  «circumstances in which a person or a thing is ». It is specialized in its meaning when used in law (a law suit), in grammar (a form in the paradigm of a noun), in medicine (a patient, an illness). The difference between these meanings is revealed in the context. The meaning of a word can specialize when it remains in the general usage. It happens in the case of the conflict between two absolute synonyms when one of them must specialize in its meaning to remain in the language, e. g. the native word (meat) had the meaning (food), this meaning is preserved in the compound  «sweetmeats)). The meaning (edible flesh)) was formed when the word  «food)), its absolute synonym, won in the conflict of absolute synonyms (both words are native). The English verb  «starve) was specialized in its meaning after the Scandinavian verb  «die » was borrowed into English.  «Die » became the general verb with this meaning because in English there were the noun  «death)gt; and the adjective  «dead ».  «Starve) got the meaning  «to die of hunger » meanings: in Russian we say, in English we use the verb  «come » in this case. In English we use the verb  «go » in the combinations:  «to go by bus »,  «to go by train » etc. In Russian in these cases we use the verb. The number of meanings does not correspond to the number of words; neither does the number of notions. Their distribution in relation to words is peculiar in every language. The Russian has two words for the English  «man ». In English, however,  «man » cannot be applied to a female person. We say in Russian: In English we use the word  «person »/ She is a good person »/ Development of lexical meanings in any language is influenced by the whole network of ties and relations between words CONCLUSION 1. Having analyzed the problem of shortening of words in Modern English we could do the following conclusions: a) The problem of shortened words in Modern English is very actual nowadays. b) There are several kinds of shortening: shortening proper, blending, abbreviations. c) A number of famous linguists dealt with the problem of shortening of words in Modern English. In particular, Profs. Ullmann and Broal emphasized the social reas ons for shortening, L. Lipka pointed out non-binary contrast or many-member lexical sets and gave the type which he called directional opposition, V. N. Comissarov and Walter Skeat proved the link of homonymy influence with the appearing of shortened words, etc. d) The problem of shortening is still waits for its detail investigation. 2. 3. Having said about the perspectives of the work we hope that this work will find its worthy way of applying at schools, lyceums and colleges of high education by both teachers and students of English. We also express our hopes to take this work its worthy place among the lexicological works dedicated to the types of shortening.

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Innovations In Continuous Internal Assessment English Language Essay

Innovations In Continuous Internal Assessment English Language Essay The present system of one-shot summative evaluation by means of the course end examination has been criticized (and also supported by some) by some of the stakeholders of education system. The purpose of evaluation is to see if a given programme is working, an institution is successful according to the goals set for it, and the original intent is being successfully carried out. It means to determine social utility, desirability or effectiveness of a process, product or a programme and includes recommendation for some better future course of action. Evaluation does not just mean measurement of the level of learning outcomes but more so an approach for further improving the system. It needs to be diagnostic and formative in nature to provide remedial help to the students. It is also agreed by all academicians that evaluation should act as a positive input for improving the teaching learning process and not as a deterrent. The report card of evaluation should reflect not only the schola stic aspects of the learner, but also Life Skills acquisition, personality attributes, behaviour interests, attitudes, values and proficiency in indoor as well as outdoor co-curricular activities. It should facilitate in unravelling the latent talent and reflect a true picture of the growth and profile of a young learner (Vineet Joshi, Chaiman Secretary, CBSE, 2009). One consequence of the global influences, such as changes in the world economy, the information revolution, environmentalism, and cross-national health threats, is the move away from the heavy use of traditional, more judgmental approaches to assessment toward alternative, more inclusive means of determining what learners know and can do. Along with this move is a thoughtful re-examination of just what we want from our learners in classrooms worldwide. (Carol A. Puhl, 1997). Realizing the flaws in the present system of evaluation and importance of comprehensive continuous assessment, a country has to not only reform but also transform the process of evaluation in the current education system. With this objective (for improving the quality of education), Government of India also has planned to put in place a system of continuous assessment in few months time (PM,s address to the nation on the occasion of the countrys 65th Independence Day). Different forms of continuous assessment can be used by different subject teachers for different levels of learners. Though broad guidelines can be laid down, exact procedure to be followed cannot be explicitly stated for a specific course or programmes. Every individual tutor may be trying within the limitations of resources and his experience different ways of evaluating the students continually over a semester or academic year. The effectiveness of this process can be determined only through the learners performance after the course. In this paper, I have made an attempt to share my experience in comprehensive continuous assessment of the students at tertiary level in English language/ literature class rooms. Changing Role of Teachers Modern Indias system of education expanding as never before with graduation as the minimum entry level qualification for a job and Masters degree a mere gateway for a career, the need of the hour is far beyond the degrees in paper. What matters most is attitude and varied skill sets in order to sustain ones place in the competitive and challenging global job market. To fulfill these requirements, our democratic nation shoulders the huge responsibility of modifying its past principle, Survival of the fittest to suit the current needs as fit all of them to survive. This present principle being our goal, all the universities and academicians play a vital role in transforming this goal into action. The function of tertiary and higher education institutes and the quality of students produced by them requires not only a thorough scrutiny but also a major revision and a complete reformation to address the challenges in todays changing education environment. Our country needs not just gradua tes but intellectual dynamites to think locally and act globally, individuals with thinking minds, responsible citizens to lead India in the path of progress as a developed nation. In the branch of tertiary and higher education today, semester pattern is largely being followed by most of the universities, India and abroad. With such practice in vogue, an academic year comprising two semesters, Spring and Fall, should contain relevant topics, both significant in content and interesting in variety thus fulfilling the knowledge function. True to the saying that knowledge is power, only if applied, such knowledge-gain has to be tested in practice. Testing is nothing but practicing the power of learning. From times immemorial, examination, either oral or written has been in vogue only to check the comprehensive level of the receiver. We should keep in mind the fact that checks and balances are part of any established system. Contrary to this ancient belief, testing of knowledge, in a way, also helps both the learner and the teacher to know more from each other which can further lead to self-scrutiny and betterment. To smoothen this process, as a first step, appropri ate modern teaching methods have to be applied along with the essential pedagogical resources for the knowledge transfer to happen successfully. Again the teaching-learning process remains partial if there is no training function. Implementation of practical methods has become the need of the hour not only for science subjects even for humanities. Due to such changing trends in the field of modern education, a classroom, meant for knowledge-sharing, is no longer an exclusive teacher-cantered domain for delivering lectures based on theory. As the dimension of learning process includes in its fold different types of experimental learning techniques using technology as teaching aid, the classroom becomes a world in itself. The suggested place also serves as a continuous learning-cum-testing ground to know more and more: starting from critical thinking to presentation skills, personality enrichment to behavioural science, verbal to non-verbal communication methods, subjective to objective approaches, so on and so forth. With these wide-ranging benefits, continuous internal assessment paves way to self-development, knowledge upgr adation, creativity, innovative thinking , problem-solving, strategic planning, time management etc. thus leading further to the road not taken. Thus learning and assessment go hand in hand as a continuous process. Obviously, to match the changing trends, the learning outcome tested by means of assessment is undergoing a sea-change as well. Now, to focus on the teaching of English language and literature in the present century, a teacher cannot sit back to play the conventional role of merely teaching and assessing the students performance and publishing their results. There is no denial of this public-service function performed by a teacher which in addition to this mandatory task demands an extension of role as a trainer to identify and hone the skill of students. Therefore, a multi-level learner-centered training programme has to be incorporated as part of the regular teaching method in the form of activities and games to develop language skills and literature study. As a result, a new job-description evolves for a teacher in order to match the rising professional standards. To bridge the existing gulf between the old and new standards, the teaching faculty has to be made aware of the ever-c hanging roles and responsibilities across the world. Teaching profession expects the teacher to emerge in a new avatar of multi-tasking. As a result, a new job-description evolves for a contemporary teacher to suit the rising standards. For equipping the teachers, orientation programmes and training workshops on tech-savvy teaching can be organized at regular intervals thus helping the tutors do justice to this new avatar. Learning journey takes a new route: With the increase in population and universal primary education becoming one of the seven millennium development goals proposed by the United Nations, the class room size is increasing and paying individual attention to each and every learner becomes extremely difficult even for the most dedicated tutors. Evaluation of continuous assessment components becomes even more time consuming and labourious. In such circumstances, Virtual learning environment eases the work of the tutor and reaches the door steps of the learners who have access to the internet. Among the present generation of students, there is hardly a person without a laptop and in some states in India, government offers free laptops to the student community at the tertiary level. Thus the changing times and emerging trends bring technology to our service for fulfilling the demanding educational needs in a much more effective way. Many open source software (Moodle is one) are available which needs just customization to suit the needs of the institution/ programme. With VLE, students and teachers can work on the same platform as per their convenience in many ways having scheduled activities over a semester with a time frame for every activity. Semester work plan/ weekly teaching schedule, learning resources such as power point slides, videos, lecture notes, reading or course material, assignment and presentation topics, links to files or websites having learning resources, quiz questions, or anything you name can be added and uploaded, periodical online tests can be conducted. This tool also provides extended facilities for grading, report generation (best results are achieved with MCQ based tests), backup and restoring of files. The actual constraint may be the resources and training provided to the tutors by the institutions they work with. Access to the computers during off-class hours in the college, stable and fast internet connection and necessary software should be available to the faculty. Ther e may be resentments at the beginning as it involves extra labour on preparation, over the years the tutors will have the ease of using it effectively even for a large group of students. Researched Assignment: From east to west, assignments are the best methods to inculcate research practices in students, as research at graduate, masters and doctoral level has proved to be application oriented. The general framework/ sequential task involves gathering relevant information through research, understanding and interpreting the collected details by applying critical thinking, planning and outlining the draft, coherent organization of details, structuring the paragraphs with appropriate thesis statement and topic sentences and thus presenting the thought-inductive ideas in a refined written form. Such series of steps can be worked together in pair. Even for this task, innovative measures can be applied right from the beginning by posting the assignment topics over VLE along with the necessary guidelines and time frame to monitor the progress and submission. Assignment submitted after the deadline will not be accepted by the system. Also, the question of being unaware of the task never arises as the assigned task glows with the tag NEW and its mandatory for both the teacher and the taught to access this link very often for exchanging their views in the discussion forum , for the announcement of academic activities etc. One another advantage of this soft copy assignment submission is that the whole write up can be scrutinized for on line plagiarism by using software (Viper is one such software which is an open source software). This feasible method can curb plagiarism, an academic dishonesty, to a possible extent. Moreover, students can submit hard copy as well to proceed with the usual evaluation pattern. For systematic evaluati on, following a specific preset marking criteria encompassing content, critical analysis(inclusive of quotations), referencing (in-text and end-text) and language can help in setting a standard evaluation procedure thus enhancing the skill set of the learners with a better end-product. Power Point Presentation: The main objective of this internal component is to enhance the spoken communication of the students. Other inherent aspects looked at are the style of presentation, fluency and flow of speech, pronunciation and choice of words, use of right terms, intonation, body language, the level of confidence and above all the ability to reach out to the listeners and tackling the questions at the end of the session. The presentation purpose listed above is quite common for all. Therefore, let me move on to the presentation tool. Since Chart is the most familiar tool used even at school level , todays young students whose lifestyle keeps moving from screen to screen (from television to mobile to computer) can be trained to present the topic as ppt slides. The constructive use of technology as an aid in academics not only makes the presentation interesting and informative but also kindles the creativity of students. Coming to the assessment part, an exclusive grading sheet for the presentation can be formulated to evaluate the performance. To ensure a cohesive presentation, prior planning is required which includes a brief outline of the presentation schedule with the group division of students and their topics along with the grading criteria. The planned schedule can be uploaded over VLE well in advance so that students can start preparing their topics. Usually the presentation can be conducted a few weeks before the semester draws to a close and using this method one particular text a play or a novel can be assigned for the students to prepare and present. A model presentation plan has been chartered for practice. Grading Criteria Group Names [ Group division] Presentation Topic Marks Total Content: In-depth subject knowledge Proper use of textual lines adequate explanation Critical analysis Group 1: A , B C Text assigned: Ben Jonsons The Alchemist- a play A: The Age of Jonson BJ as a playwright. B: Intro. To the play concerned with a briefing on the plot structure characters. C: The origin and application of Js theory Presentation Style: Clarity in presentation Coherent flow of ideas Unique method of representing the concept Voice modulation Group 2: Each group can have 4 or 5 presenters Presenter 1: Act I-sc.i, ii P 2: sc. iii iv, an analysis P 3: On character sketch, traits and major events. P 4: Overall critical analysis of Act I with the comments of critics Language Fluency Appropriate choice of words Pronunciation -The pattern continues for a week or for 7 lecture hours. The method continues for all the acts of the play done by the subsequent groups Body Language Eye contact Confidence Last Group: Sums up the whole task P 1: Revisit the play as a whole highlighting the major events and their significance. Interaction Independent tackling of the queries -Task to be continued and completed. P 2: Focuses on the method of characterization with the classification of major and minor chrs The prime objective of this presentation model is to promote independent learning and individual thinking. End purpose: Students gain knowledge through self-learning and practice. P3:Traits and disposition of the chrs, highlighted. P 4 5: on Thematic concerns. Action Spread Sheet Method: This unique method is also a proven success when implemented in my teaching career. Its feasible for a small group of learners with a student strength ranging up to 25 and can be applied in the II or III semester after establishing a friendly familiarity with the attitude and aptitude of the group involved. The uniqueness of the mode of assessment for this method lies in the fact that its purely based on text-based activities performed by each group throughout the semester. For instance, I applied this method for the II semester English Literature group comprising 24 students. The module title and the recommended texts for this module are: English Poetry Drama: C14 17. Texts: 1.Chaucer : General Prologue to Canterbury Tales 2.Marlowe: Doctor Faustus 3. BenJonson: The Alchemist 4. John Milton: Paradise Lost, Bk.I 5. Metaphysical Poets: 3 Poems of John Donne 2 poems of Andrew Marvell. Continually assessed semester activity plan: A Sample Product When a text is being taught, either in the middle of the weekly schedule or at the end, students should perform a group-based activity. The one and only condition is that, all the members in the group should contribute, so that they can be marked. Otherwise everything is left to the creative imagination of the students. This fun learning exercise happens in the classroom within the class hours and that too with minimum properties. Group 1: Activity 1: A mime show on Chaucers pilgrims. Gp.2 : Activity 2: Literary parade of seven deadly sins and its contemporary relevance. Gp.3 : Activity 3: Choose one gulling scene involving Subtle, Face and any other victim or Quiz programme can be conducted by the group on this particular text. Gp.4 :Activity 4: Famous speeches of Satan, Beelezebub and the epic similes: to be recited and their significant meanings pointed out. Gp.5 :Activity 5: A slideshow or an album of the major metaphysical poets, their contribution, and the rules devised by the metaphysical school of poets for their poetry construction with examples from the poems studied. Gp.6 : Activity 6: Definition and explanation of the metaphysical conceits, wits and symbols appearing in the prescribed poems. This method provides ample room for fun and creative learning with enthusiastic participation from the students thus creating a better learning environment. For this activity, the assessment record has to be maintained throughout the semester as it can be finalized only at the end. Portfolio Assessment for Creative Writing: The Creative writing module containing short fiction and non-fiction writing has submission of portfolio for assessment. All the drafts, workshop materials, activities done individually, in pair and group and the research work done has to be filed in order with the date and topic and has to be submitted along with the final draft of the story and an essay. Short fiction comprising story writing is taught through varied activities . They are developing story from a poem, writing a scene, lottery story-writing focusing mainly on character sketch by drawing lots, collaborative dialogue writing, completing a given story, sketching a captivating scene, developing conflicts both internal and external etc. Well trained on all the aspects of story-writing, the student is expected to create an original story. Marks are awarded based on Plot structure, characterization, technical aspects, language and theme. For non-fiction the assessment is based on content, organization, language and methodology. This portfolio pattern, which practically includes everything done by a student from beginning till the end, trains youngsters to remain well-organized. Conclusion Any method adopted by teachers in any classroom for comprehensive continuous assessment also has obstacles like classroom size, workload for the teacher and other responsibilities shouldered by the teachers in the institute. The support and encouragement rendered by the institution to the teachers and the receptivity of the students to the initiatives are some other factors that affect the success of the process. An institution may have the best infrastructure and curriculum but the ultimate success lies in the hand of the teacher and the learner specially on their attitude towards teaching and learning. To conclude, the success of any innovation in the academic circle rests on two factors. On the one hand, the larger picture matters and on the other the connectivity enjoyed between the teacher and the taught.

Assessing Learners Needs in Education Essay example -- essays research

Units 101 &105 In this essay I shall be examining the importance of accurate initial assessment of learner’s needs. In order to do this it is necessary to correctly identify my learners so that appropriate teaching methods can be structured for them. From there, I shall explore how to best support learners throughout their period of study, both in terms of educational support, and in terms of developing their self confidence. The students I teach are studying toward a 2 year diploma in Creative Sound Engineering & Music Technology at Deep Blue Sound (DBS). It is common for the learners to come from a fairly narrow section of society. Broadly speaking, learners are male, and fall into the 16-25 age range, although there is also at least one learner in his late forties. Group sizes average between 8 and 14. The learner’s first point of contact, and assessment, comes through their application. This will provide us with clues to the potential needs of the student, including their age (and need for supervision), current understanding of the subject, and any appropriate experience or qualifications they may have. From here candidates are invited to an interview, where they are given a full tour of the facilities along with an overview of the structure of the course. The interview stage allows us to assess both their suitability for the course, both in terms of attitude and ability, and gives us an insight into their expectations and requirements, and their potential barriers to learning. For example, those who are not school leavers may well have obstacles to learning that their school-leaving counterparts do not share. As Armitage (1999) observes: â€Å"(Having a continuous learning experience from the age of 5) is generally not the case for the adult learner who may not have been involved in a formal education experience for some time and whose knowledge and expectations of education may only be based on their own school experience. Equally, the adult re-entering the education system at any level has many more outside responsibilities and pressures than the younger FE or HE student.† Applicants will also be tested at this stage for computer literacy. During the enrolment procedure, learners are assessed for literacy using the Smog Readability Formula (McLaughlin, G. 1969: 639-646), in order to bring to light, amongst other things, potential learning dif... ...o all handouts and project briefs in electronic format, so that his computer is able to read them back to him. Once this trust has been established, the line of communication between student and teacher becomes much more free-flowing, effectively facilitating the tutor’s ongoing assessment of the class. In conclusion, in order for us to guarantee a successful and enjoyable learning experience for the student, we must accurately assess the individual needs of the learner, and be aware of how dynamic these needs can be. Through maintaining open channels of communication between students and staff, and by providing the student with a safe place to learn, we can adapt our teaching styles to grow with the changing needs of the learner, as well as providing helpful and meaningful support for them, ensuring they receive the most effective training possible whilst studying on the course. Bibliography Armitage, A. (1999) Teaching and Training in Post-Compulsory Education, 2nd Ed, King’s Lynn: OUP. P63 McLaughlin, G. (1969), SMOG grading: A new readability formula. Journal of Reading, 12 (8) 639-646 Petty, G. (2004), Teaching Today, 4th Ed, Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd. P201

Bilbo Baggins in “The Hobbit” Essay

Firstly, it is necessary to outline that Bilbo Baggins is the protagonist and title character of â€Å"The Hobbit†. He is the most important figure in the novel, because his emotions, feelings and actions shape the plot of the story. Bilbo’s appearance is rather original and even funny as he is only half the size of a man. In the beginning of the novel Bilbo appears to be comfortable and complacent like most hobbits. For example, he likes drink, food and security as well as he has his snug little hole at Bag End, Underhill. However, starting from the chapter 5, when Gandalf â€Å"enlists Bilbo’s help in Thorin’s quest for the treasure under the mountain†, Bilbo gradually changes, develops and transforms from a cautious homebody to a confident and brave hero. With novel progression, Baggins displays inner cunning, strength and, certainly, he becomes the dominant force which holds the group of hapless dwarves together. Bilbo gains their respect, because he saves them from the goblins by shouting for Gandalf and then he helps them to defeat the spider and wood elves in Mirkwood. He is respected for finding the way into the mountain and leading dwarfs to the desired treasure. Furthermore, Bilbo discovers the weak spot of Smaug and tries to thwart Thorin’s greed. Simply saying, Bilbo wants to bring peace to the feuding dwarves, elves, and humans. Chapter 8 is the turning point in hero’s development, because Bilbo kills the spider and feels like â€Å"a different person†. Further, despite dwarfs’ stubbornness and inability to make proper decisions, Bilbo develops his newfound qualities of initiative, courage, and heroism. It is necessary to underline that when other participants of the journey become corrupted with greediness, Baggins tries to maintain common sense and courage. Throughout the novel, Bilbo discovers new capabilities unknown to him earlier. Moreover, he doesn’t become arrogant and follows his principles and values. Bilbo learns how to thrive and how to draw strength from the simple source trying to stay true to himself all along. References Tolkien, J. , Gardner, P. (ed. ) & Phllips, B. (ed. ). (2002). The Hobbit. New York, NY: Spark Pub.

Foster Parents And Solution Focused Brief Therapy Social Work Essay Essay Example

Foster Parents And Solution Focused Brief Therapy Social Work Essay Essay Example Foster Parents And Solution Focused Brief Therapy Social Work Essay Essay Foster Parents And Solution Focused Brief Therapy Social Work Essay Essay Abstraction Approximately 60 per centum of kids populating in curative Foster attention, enter the system with a diagnosing of moderate to terrible mental wellness issues. These kids, placed in curative Foster places, can show riotous behaviours. Maladaptive get bying accomplishments on the portion of the kid or emphasis bring oning behaviours on the portion of the health professional can do a crises taking to possible remotion from the place. Solution focused brief therapy, could increase the quality of the relationship between surrogate parent and kid. Foster kids and parents can hold a disparity between the perceptual experience of a state of affairs and improper communicating of opposing positions may take to crisis. Exploitation tools and renters of solution focused brief therapy could diminish placement breaks. The intent of this article is to place common issues and challenges confronting surrogate parents and kids, and illustrations of intercessions utilizing solution based therapy. The strength-based intercessions, coupled with the current evidenced-based preparation, will diminish placement breaks, and increase the potency of successful passages from surrogate attention. The article will discourse current evidenced-based intercessions, and solution focused therapy as an extra curative attack. In this article, common issues and challenges confronting surrogate parents and kids are discussed ; and strengths and restrictions of implementing solution focused therapy techniques are explored. : Keywords: Curative Foster Care, Foster Parents, Foster Children, Solution Focused Brief Therapy, Training Foster Parents and Solution Focused Brief Therapy: An estimated 541,000 kids in America live in the Foster attention system today ( U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2010 ) . Residential intervention installations, psychiatric group places, and foster/ affinity attention comprise most of these out of place arrangements. Curative Foster Care, ( TFC ) is an extra type of out of place arrangement and is a specialised service designed to function kids with particular demands ( Berika, 1999 ) . These particular demands range from emotional, cognitive, and physical/medical and can function as a measure down between a residential intervention centre and Foster attention ( Strijker, Oijen, A ; Dickscheit, 2010 ) . Each specific type of out of place arrangement offers differences in the ends and maps of Foster attention and curative Foster attention are legion. Maltreated kids are placed in surrogate attention chiefly to have protection, and stableness. If the kid exhibits the demand for mental wellness or substance maltreatment therapy, the service is provided outside of the place ( Farmer, Mustillo, Burns, A ; Holden, 2008 ) . Transitioning statement from fc 2 tfc ( on the other manus ) Therapeutic Foster attention combines the construction of a residential intervention installation with the attention and protection of the place environment. Fifty nine per centum of kids come ining curative Foster attention address serious degrees of emotional behavioural issues ; and need rehabilitation ( Hochstadt, Jaudes, Zimo, A ; Schacter, 1987 ) . Curative intercessions take topographic point within the place, with the end of incorporating freshly acquired interpersonal accomplishments into the place environment, which are necessary for future household reunion. Multiple grounds exist easing the demand to put a kid outside of the place for intervention. Bad household factors include poorness, divorce within the immediate household, ( Williams at all, 1990 ) , biological parental mental unwellness, witnessing domestic force, and anterior captivities within the immediate household ( Johnson, 1989 ) . The inability or involuntariness of the primary health professional to care for the kid is extra grounds for biological parental rights expiration ( Pecora, White, Jackson, A ; Wiggins, 2009 ) . Alternatively, the kid may hold been removed from the place due to pretermit or hapless parenting. Substance maltreatment by the biological parents, or even the immature individual themselves, are extra factors in the determination to take the kid from the biological place. Therefore, due to legion grounds, the young person may hold trouble acclimatizing to new life state of affairss. Children placed in curative Foster attention tend to exhibit hapless get bying accomplishments, low defeat tolerance, and projecting upsets such as Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Conduct Disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ( Fiegelman A ; Harrington, 1993 ) . The behaviours that accompany such projecting upsets may do foster parents to see empathy weariness ( Lipscome, Moyers, A ; Farmer, 2004 ) . Empathy weariness is a prima cause for which a Foster parent decides to give up the Foster kid ( Parker, 2009 ) . This is known as a placement break or the kid s unscheduled remotion from the Foster place for good. Numerous publications study findings, that arrangement break has a damaging consequence on surrogate kids. The American Academy of Pediatrics reported placement break, Hinders the development and mending procedure of kids ( American Academy of paediatricss 2000 ) . Placement break jeopardizes the chance for kids to develop trusting and unafraid relationships with grownups ( Robertson, 1989 ) . The act of dividing a kid from biological households induces feelings of rejection, guilt, forsaking, and shame, ( Garland et al. , 2000, Simm at el 2000 ) regardless of the ground. Multiple arrangements before the age of 14 are associated with higher rates of delinquency in young persons . Recent surveies show a relationship between surrogate child arrangement break and the addition of surrogate attention alumnas homelessness, captivity, and victimization. ( Courtney, Dworsky, Lee, A ; Raap, 2009 ) . Harmonizing to the Midwest Evaluation of Adult Functioning of Former Foster Youth, Far excessively many surrogate young person are non geting the life accomplishments or developing the interpersonal connexions they need if they are to go productive immature grownups ( Midwest Evaluation of Adult Functioning of Former Foster Youth, 2010 ) . Foster parents are to supply a safe and nurturing place, which will transfuse interpersonal communicating and effectual life accomplishments to youth. The constitution of the connexion between the surrogate parent and the surrogate kid demands is critical due to beliefs that Foster parents would profit from the usage of solution focused based curative techniques with the Foster kid as these techniques provide____________________________________ . Multiple preparation plans have attempted to integrate these accomplishments within the juvenile s day-to-day modus operandi ( Price, Chamberlain, Landsverk, Reid, Leve, A ; Laurent, 2008 ) . LIST PREVIOUS MODLES Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care is a strengths-based intercession advancing kid and adolescent resilience in young person exposed to early hardship . Application of MTFC within a intervention Foster attention place employs a point and degree privilege system. Multiple surveies show the effectivity of utilizing a reward degree plan ( Fisher Chamberlain A ; Leve 2009 ) . A 2nd intercession theoretical account, which is a modified version of the multidimensional intervention Foster attention intercession designed for younger kids is called maintaining surrogate parents trained and supported ( Price, Chamberlain, Landsverk A ; Reid, 2009 ) . Other theoretical accounts of deserving mentioning. When a kid faces the instability of arrangement break, they do non hold a consistent environment where they feel safe to maturate ; alternatively, they must re-adapt the new life state of affairs. We suggest following the renters and techniques of solution focused brief therapy in add-on to the aforesaid surrogate parent preparation will increase placement stableness. Training the Foster parents in solution focused therapy techniques we believe they will help the young person in going solution oriented. This new set of accomplishments taught to the kid, by the Foster parent has the possible to increase the surrogate kid s quality of life by diminishing placement breaks. Solution focused therapy lends itself good as an extra component preparation of surrogate parents. Through a inquiry and reply conversation, it enables the surrogate parent to see the position of a given state of affairs through the eyes of the kid. Solution focused brief therapy is strengths-based and future oriented, while still formalizing the individual s experience ( Littrell, 2006 ) . Major renters of this theory are ( a. ) alteration is changeless ( B. ) there is ever an exclusion to the job ( c. ) there are many ways of looking at a state of affairs, all every bit of import ( Bannink, 2006/2010 ) . It brings little successes to the kid or surrogate parents consciousness, and assists them in going solution oriented. This article will discourse several solutions focused based therapy techniques with illustrations of their application. Scaling inquiries, including what identifies and increase or diminish of one point and the application will be discussed. Coping inquiries, which illuminates the health professionals and surrogate kid s strengths, will be investigated. The usage of linguistic communication tool statements, such as You must hold had a ground to , will be explored. The designation of the kid s resources both internal and external will besides be examined with illustrations exemplifying the application. The execution of solution-focused therapy to increase Foster attention arrangement stableness has been used in residential curative intervention installations. In a recent survey it was found during the first twelvemonth of intervention, the young person were counseled utilizing the techniques of Cognitive behavioural therapy. In the 2nd twelvemonth they were counseled utilizing solution focused brief therapy. It was discovered, the figure of breaks from these young persons decreased from average bing 6.29 ( standard divergence bing 3.6 ) to intend peers 1.45 ( standard divergence.68 ) , P lt ; 001. Statistics show when used with displaced kids solution focused brief therapy has the possible to diminish behavioural breaks ( . It is our belief utilizing solution focused brief therapy techniques will increase interpersonal communicating accomplishments and problem-solving accomplishments of these young person. It is besides our belief that utilizing solution focused brief therapy tech niques in concurrence with proved developing plans will diminish placement break and in bend decrease the negative social effects of placement break. In this article, we will discourse assorted emotional wellness rehabilitation demands of surrogate kids referred to curative Foster attention. A concise geographic expedition of current evidence-based curative Foster parent preparation theoretical accounts foregrounding their strengths and failings will take topographic point. The nucleus renters of solution focused brief therapy will be explored with the purpose intent of placing specific intercessions for usage with this population. Furthermore, illustrations of the preferable intercession techniques of solution focused brief therapy will be provided. Finally, the strengths and restrictions of utilizing solution focused brief therapy with this population will be discussed with suggestions for farther research. I. Socioeconomic branchings of child ill-treatment. Neglecting the curative Foster attention populations has a enfeebling consequence on the economic system. Homelessness ( look into tense and safe assign ) In surveies focused on homelessness in maturity, arrangement in surrogate attention in childhood or adolescence often emerges as a hazard factor. { { 57 Fowler, P.J. 2009 ; } } For illustration a survey conducted by the Casey Institute showed within a two twelvemonth period shows homelessness for surrogate alumnas exceeded 12. % , which is the rate for a individual episode of homelessness amid US grownups. One fifth of the striplings taking portion in the survey experienced chronic homelessness. { { 86 Anonymous ; } } Homelessness in adolescence and immature maturity has been shown to be associated with elevated hazards of a figure of negative results. { { 57 Fowler, P.J. 2009 ; } } These services need to get down before, to be extended to all eligible kids in Foster attention, and to stay available until former Foster attention young person have attained stableness as immature grownups ( Kushel et al. , 2007 ; Pecora et al. , 2006 ) . Research findings indicate that services need to get down early when a household foremost arrives at a shelter or the kid first enters foster attention, peculiarly since early intercession for immature kids can cut down the magnitude of injury and subsequent jobs later in life { { 80 Dozier M Higley E Albus, K Nutter A. ( 2002 ) ; } } Housing instability was related to emotional and behavioural jobs, physical and sexual victimization, condemnable strong belief, and high school dropout. From this information Fowler concluded striplings transitioning from surrogate attention are at well higher hazard of homelessness { { 57 Fowler, P.J. 2009 ; } } A.1 Maltreatment taking to out of place arrangement Sixty four per centum of instances involved in the kid public assistance system are due to parental disregard. Failure to go to to the kid s physical, emotional, or educational demands may do terrible, long term psychological challenges. Domestic force in the kid s presence ; familial substance usage that interferes with rearing abilities, Physical maltreatment ( 16 % ) , sexual maltreatment ( 9 % ) , and psychological ill-treatment ( 7 % ) are other grounds kids are reported to child public assistance. ( { { 72 Leve, L.D. 2009 ; } } B. Needs of Those in Therapeutic Foster Care Features of Those in Foster Care Social and Academic Health Children involved in the Foster attention system are at a higher hazard of low academic public presentation and school failure. Children confronting challenges, normally present with psychosocial jobs at a well increased rate than the general population. These scope from impulse control, to Attention shortage hyperactivity upset, to carry on upsets which maturate during immature grownup goon and beyond. Children who fail to develop successful equal dealingss during school entry are at increased hazard for behavior jobs, peer rejection, and academic failure throughout childhood and adolescence { { 91 Anonymous 2001 ; 24 Egelund, Tine 2009 ; } } emotional and behavioural jobs, exposure to physical and sexual maltreatment, adolescent gestation, captivity and high school dropout. { { 57 Fowler, P.J. 2009 ; } } A preponderance of kids in the public assistance system have been identified as sing cognitive holds as evidenced by the Denver Developmental Screening Test II { { 91 Anonymous 2001 ; } } . This is the most widely used psychometric trial utilized for this immature population. Early behaviour jobs among kids placed in Foster attention have predicted delinquency, substance usage, and sexual behaviour 6 old ages subsequently { { 62 Linares, L.O. 2006 } } Medical and Physical wellness The gravitation and extent of the wellness attention jobs confronting abused and ignored kids are genuinely alarming.A Specified implicit in neurobiological systems are influenced by types of hardship witnessed by kids in the system addition hazard for negative results. These include common childhood diagnosing are at uncommon degrees such as ADHD, riotous behaviour, anxiousness, and affectional upsets. { { 72 Leve, L.D. 2009 } } Surveies observed increased displacements in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal HPA Axis, a endocrine affected by hydrocortisone instabilities. This endocrine controls reactions to emphasis and has been discovered among kids sing emphasis in Foster attention. Increased untypical diurnal hydrocortisone degrees { { 74 Pears, K.C. 2008 ; } } are known to be higher particularly among immature female kids who have experienced biological health professional neglect { { 70 Fisher, P.A. 2007 ; } } . Similar to the HPA axis surveies, jobs with executive operation are more common in surrogate kids than in the general population { { 74 Pears, K.C. 2008 ; } } . However curative intercessions designed for surrogate kids may positively impact the HPA axis activity as it has been noted diminishing emphasis decreases the degrees of hydrocortisone { { 70 Fisher, P.A. 2007 ; } } . ( More research needs done ) Fisher Suggests intercessions which decrease emphasis degrees of younger juveniles in out of place arrangements may bring forth increased outcomes on the societal cognitive degree and increase the operation of an neurobiological systems. { { 95 Fisher, P.A. 2008 ; } } { { 72 Leve, L.D. 2009 } } d. REHABILITATION NEEDS OF CHILDREN IN FOSTER CARE: EVIDENCE-BASED INTERVENTIONS Evidence-based intercessions were formed and assessed to oversee the psychological and physical public assistance of kids in Foster attention. Stress bring oning behaviour on the portion of the parent can do riotous behaviour in the Foster kid which leads to early expiration from the place. Maladaptive get bying accomplishments of the kid that have nt been rectified affect the kid s relationship with their health professional and over clip start to give negative intensions to authorization figures. Implementing the intercessions has shown a lessening in the demand for immaterial mental and physical wellness attention by increasing the chance of achieving placement stableness. Interventions must aim immature people while they are still in surrogate attention, before the age of 17 old ages, to guarantee connexion to services such as tuition aid, employment preparation, and wellness insurance. { { 57 Fowler, P.J. 2009 ; } } Models MTFC The MTFC theoretical account acknowledges and identifies the affect of emotional adversities on the physical and psychological missing word of the Foster attention population. It originated in 1983 in response to an Oregon State petition for proposals from the juvenile justness system to develop community-based options to captivity for adolescent arrangements in residential/group attention. ( Leve,2009 ) This theoretical account gives an grounds based solution to beef up the self-pride of the surrogate kids and learn them resilience to better behavioural jobs. Additionally, consistent with research on resilience, the theoretical account now incorporates cardinal positive person and interpersonal relationships, adaptative neurobiological operation, and adaptative societal behaviour. ( Leve, 2009 ) How it works The MTFC intercession Teachs caregivers how to give positive mentoring, better parental accomplishments and the importance of consistence through preparation, supervising and the indorsement of a accomplishments manager. MTFC was selected by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention ( Elliott, 1998 ) as 1 of 10 evidence-based National Blueprints Programs ; was selected as 1 of 9 National Exemplary Safe, Disciplined, and Drug-Free Schools theoretical account plans ; was highlighted in 2 U.S. Surgeon General studies ( U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000a, 2000b ) ( Leve,2009 ) These studies recorded authorities nest eggs, showed betterment of behaviour in kid, and helped emphasize degree of health professional. State Public Policy group reported a $ 32,915 cost nest eggs in 2006 to taxpayers for each ( Leve,2009 ) In order for the intercession to be effectual, the Foster kid demands positive support, single and household therapy, along with societal accom plishments and academic mentoring. The squad The accomplishments manager is conditioned to concentrate on good accomplishments and actions instead than past behaviours or debatable state of affairss. The surrogate parents and plan supervisor work together to carefully supervise youth accommodation in the schoolroom. ( Leve,2009 ) Classroom observations and ratings allow the health professional to measure behavioural alterations without inordinate sums of external influences in a impersonal scene. These health professionals are taught to utilize the same inducements or point systems employed in the Foster place to supply positive feedback and brief, non-emotional effects for job behaviour. ( Leve,2009 ) The consistence from one environment to another eases the passage procedure for the Foster kid. Positive results, including the likeliness of accomplishing permanence ( this consequence is peculiarly marked for kids who have had multiple anterior Foster arrangement failures ) , kids s fond regard to health professionals, foster-p arent emphasis degrees, older kids s delinquency and antisocial behaviour, engagement in school and subsequent clip incarcerated. ( Fisher P.A. 2009 )